CRIMINAL LAW
-INDEX-
GENERAL OVERVIEW AND PRELIMINARY MATTERS......1-12
The Sources of Criminal Law.........................................................................1-3
Frey v Fedoruk (1950).....................................................................................................1
CC s.9.................................................................................................................................1
CC s.8.................................................................................................................................2
R v Jobidon (1991)...........................................................................................................2
The Power to Create Criminal Offences and Rules of
Criminal Procedure...........................................................................................3-7
Constitutional Division of Powers Introduced ..................................................................3
Distribution of powers............................................................................................3
s.91(27) ..................................................................................................................3
s.92(14) ..................................................................................................................3
Definition of criminal law......................................................................................4
P.A.T.A. case (1931) .................................................................................4
Margarine Reference (1951).....................................................................4
R v Malmo-Levine (2003) .........................................................................4
The Canadian Charter of Rights and Freedoms ................................................................4
R v Heywood (1994................................................................................................4
R v Oakes (1986) ...................................................................................................5
Butler (1992) .........................................................................................................5
R v Labaye (2005 and R v Kouri (2005) ...............................................................6
Rules of Practice ................................................................................................................7
The Classification of Offences....................................................................7-8
Modes of trial.......................................................................................................................7
Summary conviction offences .................................................................................7
Indictable offences ...................................................................................................7
Types of Offences (Chart)....................................................................................................8
Information...............................................................................................................8
Summary conviction offences .................................................................................8
Indictable offences ...................................................................................................8
Interpreting Criminal Provisions.................................................................8-12
Definitions ...........................................................................................................................9
Strict Construction ..............................................................................................................9
R v Pare (1987) .......................................................................................................9
R v McIntosh (1995) ..............................................................................................10
R v MAC (2001) .....................................................................................................10
Purposive Interpretation ....................................................................................................10
Hunter v Southam Inc. (1984) ..............................................................................10
French/English ...................................................................................................................10
R v J.(D). (2002) .....................................................................................................11
The Charter .........................................................................................................................11
Canadian Foundation for Children, Youth & the Law v Canada (A.G.) (2004) .11
The Standard for “Vagueness”.................................................................................12
Does Section 43 Delineate a Risk Zone for Criminal Sanction?.............................12
THE ELEMENTS OF A CRIMINAL or REGULATORY OFFENCE................................................................13-63
Chart of Subjective Mens Rea vs Objective Mens Rea..................................................13
The Actus Reus................................................................................................13-31
Acts and Statutory Conditions ............................................................................................13
R v J.(D). (2002)....................................................................................................13
R v D’Angelo (2002) ..............................................................................................14
Acts Must be “Voluntary” or “Willed” ..............................................................................14
The “Act” of Possession .....................................................................................................14
CC s.4(3) Possession................................................................................................15
Controlled Drugs and Substances Act......................................................................15
s.2(1) Definitions .........................................................................................15
R v York (2005) .......................................................................................................15
R v Marshall (1969) ................................................................................................15
R v Pham (2005) .....................................................................................................16
Consent as an Element of the Actus Reus ............................................................................17
s.271(1) Sexual assault .............................................................................................17
s.265 CC....................................................................................................................17
R v Ewanchuk (1999) ..............................................................................................18
The Components of Sexual Assault..........................................................................18
“Implied Consent” ...................................................................................................18
Mens rea ...................................................................................................................19
Honest but Mistaken Belief in Consent.....................................................................19
Limits on Honest but Mistake Belief in Consent.......................................................19
R v Jobidon (1991) ...................................................................................................19
R v Cuerrier (1998) ..................................................................................................20
Causation ..............................................................................................................................22
R v Williams (2003) ..................................................................................................22
Aggravated assault and ‘proof of certain consequences’...........................................23
s.268(1) Aggravated assault ..........................................................................23
The Mental Element in Aggravated Assault..............................................................23
R v Nette (2001) ............................................................................................23
Factual causation ..............................................................................24
Legal causation (imputable causation) .............................................24
Causation expressed in the Criminal Code.........................................24
s.225; ss.222(5)(c);222(5)(d)
NO contributory negligence in Criminal Law....................................24
Explaining the Standard of Causation to the Jury...............................25
All forms of Homicide (Smithers TEST)...............................25
First degree murder (Harbottle TEST)................................25
R v Menezes (2002) ........................................................................................25
Intervening Act/cause .........................................................................26
Joint venture/Blame.......................................................................26
Omissions
R v Thornton (1991) .............................................................................................27
Thornton v R (1993) .............................................................................................28
R v Moore (1979) ...................................................................................................28
R v Peterson (2005) ...............................................................................................29
‘Under the Charge of Another’...................................................................30
R v Browne (1997) .................................................................................................30
Error by Trial Judge.....................................................................................31
Subjective Mens Rea.....................................................................................31-46
Intention, and Ulterior Mens Rea .......................................................................................32
R v Vandergraff (1994) ...........................................................................................32
R v Murray (2000) ...................................................................................................33
R v J.S.R [2008].........................................................................................................33
Subjective Mens Rea with Objective Features .....................................................................34
R v Theroux (1993) .................................................................................................34
Is the test for mens rea subjective or objective?...........................................34
Fraud.........................................................................................................................35
Actus reus of fraud........................................................................................35
Mens rea of fraud..........................................................................................35
R v Chase (1987) .....................................................................................................35
Objective TEST for Sexual Assault..............................................................36
Mens Rea – General Intent............................................................................37
Recklessness .........................................................................................................................37
Recklessness VS Wilful blindness............................................................................37
R v Theroux (1993) .................................................................................................38
Fraud.............................................................................................................38
Actus reus of fraud
Mens rea of fraud
Sansregret v R (1985) .............................................................................................38
Negligence
Recklessness
Wilful blindness
Recklessness VS Wilful blindness
R v Buzzanga and Durocher (1979) ......................................................................39
What is meant by “wilfully”?.......................................................................39
Knowledge ...........................................................................................................................40
R v Ewanchuk (1999) .............................................................................................40
The Components of Sexual Assault
Honest but Mistaken Belief in Consent
Limits on Honest but Mistaken Belief in Consent
Sansregret v R (1985) ............................................................................................42
Wilful Blindness ................................................................................................................42
R v Currie (1975) ..................................................................................................42
R v Duong (1998) ..................................................................................................43
Sansregret v R (1985) ...........................................................................................43
R v Vinokurov (2001) ...........................................................................................44
R v Briscoe [2010] ................................................................................................44
Objective Mens Rea and True Crimes..........................................................46-56
Vaillancourt v R (1987) ...........................................................................................................46
R v Martineau (1990) ..............................................................................................................48
R v DeSousa (1992) .................................................................................................................50
Components of the s.269 Offence and No Intent Requirement.....................................50
Conditions of the ‘Unlawful’ Predicate Offence...........................................................51
R v Creighton (1993)................................................................................................................51
Mens rea of unlawful act manslaughter ........................................................................52
Subjective and Objective Distinction............................................................................52
What “human frailties” may not factor into the objective test......................................53
The Nature of the Objective Test...................................................................................53
Penalty/Sentence............................................................................................................53
Symmetry.......................................................................................................................54
R v Hundal (1993) ....................................................................................................................54
The Constitutional Requirement of Mens Rea...............................................................55
What is the Mens Rea Required to Prove the Offence of Dangerous Driving?.............55
Application of These Principles to the Facts..................................................................56
R v Beatty (2008) .......................................................................................................................56
Regulatory Offences........................................................................................57-62
R v City of Sault Ste. Marie (1978).......................................................................................57
True Crimes
R v Chapin (1979) ..................................................................................................................58
Not a Mens Rea Offence
Not an Absolute Liability Offence
Strict Liability Offence
Reference re Section 94(2) of the Motor Vehicle Act (B.C.) (1985)...................................59
R v Pontes (1995)..................................................................................................................59
R v Hess (1990)......................................................................................................................59
R v Cancoil Thermal Corp. (1986).......................................................................................60
Levis v Tetreault (2006)........................................................................................................60
R v Wholesale Travel Group (1991)....................................................................................61
R v Vaillancourt (1987).........................................................................................................61
R v Raham [2010] .................................................................................................................62
EXTENSIONS OF CRIMINAL LIABILITY.........................63-73
Aiding and Abetting..........................................................................................63-67
CC s.21(1)................................................................................................................................63
R v Dunlop and Sylvester (1979) ...........................................................................................63
R v Black (1970) .....................................................................................................................64
R v Clarkson (1971) ...............................................................................................................64
R v Logan (1990)............................................................................................................64
R v Briscoe [2010] ..................................................................................................................66
Counselling............................................................................................................67-69
CC. s.22(1),(2),(3) ..................................................................................................................67
CC s.464 ..................................................................................................................................68
R v Hamilton (2005) ...............................................................................................................68
Actus reus for Counselling
Mens rea for Counselling
“Intent” VS “Motive”
Applying Intent/Motive to the case
Attempts.............................................................................................................69-72
CC s.24(1),(2) .........................................................................................................................69
CC s.463 Attempts, accessories – (a)-(d)(i)(ii).......................................................................69
CC s.465 Conspiracy – (1)-(7)................................................................................................70
CC s.660 .................................................................................................................................70
R v Ancio (1984) ....................................................................................................................70
R v Deustch (1986) ................................................................................................................70
R v Dery (2006) ......................................................................................................................71
Corporate and Association Liability..............................................................72-73
Canadian Dredge and Dock Co. v R (1985) .........................................................................72
Absolute Liability Offences
Offences of Strict Liability
Offences Requiring Mens Rea
SELECT CRIMINAL DEFENCES.....................................74-97
Mental Disorder (Defence).............................................................................74-77
CC s.16(1),(2),(3) ...................................................................................................................74
R v Cooper (1980) ..................................................................................................................75
R v Kjeldson (1981) ...............................................................................................................76
R v Oommen (1994) ...............................................................................................................77
Voluntary Acts “Negativing” the Actus Reus and Automatism...............77-83
R v Swaby (2001) ...................................................................................................................78
R v Parks ................................................................................................................................78
R v Stone (1999) ....................................................................................................................78
R v Rabey (1980.....................................................................................................................79
R v Parks (1992) ....................................................................................................................79
Sleepwalking
Recurrence as a factor to consider to constitute disease of the mind
R v Stone (1999) ....................................................................................................................80
Burdens of Proof Applied in Automatism
Disease of the Mind
Insanity VS Automatism (Why argue one over the other?).....................................................81
R v Fontaine (2004) ...............................................................................................................81
“Evidential” and “Persuasive” Burdens
Automatism – Both Burdens Must be Proved by the Accused
TEST whether to put a defence of mental disorder automatism, insane automatism,to jury
Simple Intoxication............................................................................................83-86
R v Bernard (1988) ..................................................................................................................83
Distinction between “General intent” and “Specific intent”
Applying Intoxication as a Defence to General and Specific Intent Offences
Specific intent
General intent
Leary v The Queen (1978)...........................................................................................84
Leary Rule
Justifying the Leary Rule..............................................................................................84
R v Robinson (1996) ................................................................................................................85
Extreme Intoxication........................................................................................86-87
R v Daviault (1994) ................................................................................................................86
How the Leary Rule Violates ss.7 and 11(d) of the Charter
Reverse Onus
Parliament’s response to Daviault...........................................................................................87
Defence of the Person....................................................................................87-92
s.34(1) ......................................................................................................................................88
s.34(2) ......................................................................................................................................88
s.35 ...........................................................................................................................................88
s.37 ...........................................................................................................................................88
R v Pintar (1996) .....................................................................................................................88
R v Cinous (2002) ....................................................................................................................89
Rationale Behind The Air of Reality Test
Air of Reality test imposes a burden on the accused
Persuasive burden
Evidential burden
Features of the Air of Reality Test
R v Lavallee (1990) ................................................................................................................90
Question to the Jury and Expert Evidence
Expert Evidence
Self-defence
Necessity.............................................................................................................92-94
R v Dudley and Stephens (1884) ..........................................................................................92
Perka v R (1984) ...................................................................................................................92
R v Latimer (2001) ................................................................................................................92
Perka Three-stage TEST – “Modified Objective” and “Objective” Test
Air of Reality to the Defence of Necessity
Air of Reality test
Necessity Defence
Compare Latimer and Morgentaler......................................................................................93
Duress..................................................................................................................94-97
R v Hibbert (1995) ...............................................................................................................94
Meaning of “Purpose” in s.21(1)(b)
Mens rea for aiding under s.21(1)(b) is Not Negated by Duress
The Safe Avenue of Escape Requirement
Is the Existence of a Safe Avenue of Escape to Be Determined Subjectively or Objectively?
R v Ruzic (2001) .................................................................................................................95
Do the Immediacy and Presence Requirements in s.17 Infringe the Principle of Involuntariness in the Attribution of Criminal Responsibility?
Burden of Proof
-INDEX-
GENERAL OVERVIEW AND PRELIMINARY MATTERS......1-12
The Sources of Criminal Law.........................................................................1-3
Frey v Fedoruk (1950).....................................................................................................1
CC s.9.................................................................................................................................1
CC s.8.................................................................................................................................2
R v Jobidon (1991)...........................................................................................................2
The Power to Create Criminal Offences and Rules of
Criminal Procedure...........................................................................................3-7
Constitutional Division of Powers Introduced ..................................................................3
Distribution of powers............................................................................................3
s.91(27) ..................................................................................................................3
s.92(14) ..................................................................................................................3
Definition of criminal law......................................................................................4
P.A.T.A. case (1931) .................................................................................4
Margarine Reference (1951).....................................................................4
R v Malmo-Levine (2003) .........................................................................4
The Canadian Charter of Rights and Freedoms ................................................................4
R v Heywood (1994................................................................................................4
R v Oakes (1986) ...................................................................................................5
Butler (1992) .........................................................................................................5
R v Labaye (2005 and R v Kouri (2005) ...............................................................6
Rules of Practice ................................................................................................................7
The Classification of Offences....................................................................7-8
Modes of trial.......................................................................................................................7
Summary conviction offences .................................................................................7
Indictable offences ...................................................................................................7
Types of Offences (Chart)....................................................................................................8
Information...............................................................................................................8
Summary conviction offences .................................................................................8
Indictable offences ...................................................................................................8
Interpreting Criminal Provisions.................................................................8-12
Definitions ...........................................................................................................................9
Strict Construction ..............................................................................................................9
R v Pare (1987) .......................................................................................................9
R v McIntosh (1995) ..............................................................................................10
R v MAC (2001) .....................................................................................................10
Purposive Interpretation ....................................................................................................10
Hunter v Southam Inc. (1984) ..............................................................................10
French/English ...................................................................................................................10
R v J.(D). (2002) .....................................................................................................11
The Charter .........................................................................................................................11
Canadian Foundation for Children, Youth & the Law v Canada (A.G.) (2004) .11
The Standard for “Vagueness”.................................................................................12
Does Section 43 Delineate a Risk Zone for Criminal Sanction?.............................12
THE ELEMENTS OF A CRIMINAL or REGULATORY OFFENCE................................................................13-63
Chart of Subjective Mens Rea vs Objective Mens Rea..................................................13
The Actus Reus................................................................................................13-31
Acts and Statutory Conditions ............................................................................................13
R v J.(D). (2002)....................................................................................................13
R v D’Angelo (2002) ..............................................................................................14
Acts Must be “Voluntary” or “Willed” ..............................................................................14
The “Act” of Possession .....................................................................................................14
CC s.4(3) Possession................................................................................................15
Controlled Drugs and Substances Act......................................................................15
s.2(1) Definitions .........................................................................................15
R v York (2005) .......................................................................................................15
R v Marshall (1969) ................................................................................................15
R v Pham (2005) .....................................................................................................16
Consent as an Element of the Actus Reus ............................................................................17
s.271(1) Sexual assault .............................................................................................17
s.265 CC....................................................................................................................17
R v Ewanchuk (1999) ..............................................................................................18
The Components of Sexual Assault..........................................................................18
“Implied Consent” ...................................................................................................18
Mens rea ...................................................................................................................19
Honest but Mistaken Belief in Consent.....................................................................19
Limits on Honest but Mistake Belief in Consent.......................................................19
R v Jobidon (1991) ...................................................................................................19
R v Cuerrier (1998) ..................................................................................................20
Causation ..............................................................................................................................22
R v Williams (2003) ..................................................................................................22
Aggravated assault and ‘proof of certain consequences’...........................................23
s.268(1) Aggravated assault ..........................................................................23
The Mental Element in Aggravated Assault..............................................................23
R v Nette (2001) ............................................................................................23
Factual causation ..............................................................................24
Legal causation (imputable causation) .............................................24
Causation expressed in the Criminal Code.........................................24
s.225; ss.222(5)(c);222(5)(d)
NO contributory negligence in Criminal Law....................................24
Explaining the Standard of Causation to the Jury...............................25
All forms of Homicide (Smithers TEST)...............................25
First degree murder (Harbottle TEST)................................25
R v Menezes (2002) ........................................................................................25
Intervening Act/cause .........................................................................26
Joint venture/Blame.......................................................................26
Omissions
R v Thornton (1991) .............................................................................................27
Thornton v R (1993) .............................................................................................28
R v Moore (1979) ...................................................................................................28
R v Peterson (2005) ...............................................................................................29
‘Under the Charge of Another’...................................................................30
R v Browne (1997) .................................................................................................30
Error by Trial Judge.....................................................................................31
Subjective Mens Rea.....................................................................................31-46
Intention, and Ulterior Mens Rea .......................................................................................32
R v Vandergraff (1994) ...........................................................................................32
R v Murray (2000) ...................................................................................................33
R v J.S.R [2008].........................................................................................................33
Subjective Mens Rea with Objective Features .....................................................................34
R v Theroux (1993) .................................................................................................34
Is the test for mens rea subjective or objective?...........................................34
Fraud.........................................................................................................................35
Actus reus of fraud........................................................................................35
Mens rea of fraud..........................................................................................35
R v Chase (1987) .....................................................................................................35
Objective TEST for Sexual Assault..............................................................36
Mens Rea – General Intent............................................................................37
Recklessness .........................................................................................................................37
Recklessness VS Wilful blindness............................................................................37
R v Theroux (1993) .................................................................................................38
Fraud.............................................................................................................38
Actus reus of fraud
Mens rea of fraud
Sansregret v R (1985) .............................................................................................38
Negligence
Recklessness
Wilful blindness
Recklessness VS Wilful blindness
R v Buzzanga and Durocher (1979) ......................................................................39
What is meant by “wilfully”?.......................................................................39
Knowledge ...........................................................................................................................40
R v Ewanchuk (1999) .............................................................................................40
The Components of Sexual Assault
Honest but Mistaken Belief in Consent
Limits on Honest but Mistaken Belief in Consent
Sansregret v R (1985) ............................................................................................42
Wilful Blindness ................................................................................................................42
R v Currie (1975) ..................................................................................................42
R v Duong (1998) ..................................................................................................43
Sansregret v R (1985) ...........................................................................................43
R v Vinokurov (2001) ...........................................................................................44
R v Briscoe [2010] ................................................................................................44
Objective Mens Rea and True Crimes..........................................................46-56
Vaillancourt v R (1987) ...........................................................................................................46
R v Martineau (1990) ..............................................................................................................48
R v DeSousa (1992) .................................................................................................................50
Components of the s.269 Offence and No Intent Requirement.....................................50
Conditions of the ‘Unlawful’ Predicate Offence...........................................................51
R v Creighton (1993)................................................................................................................51
Mens rea of unlawful act manslaughter ........................................................................52
Subjective and Objective Distinction............................................................................52
What “human frailties” may not factor into the objective test......................................53
The Nature of the Objective Test...................................................................................53
Penalty/Sentence............................................................................................................53
Symmetry.......................................................................................................................54
R v Hundal (1993) ....................................................................................................................54
The Constitutional Requirement of Mens Rea...............................................................55
What is the Mens Rea Required to Prove the Offence of Dangerous Driving?.............55
Application of These Principles to the Facts..................................................................56
R v Beatty (2008) .......................................................................................................................56
Regulatory Offences........................................................................................57-62
R v City of Sault Ste. Marie (1978).......................................................................................57
True Crimes
R v Chapin (1979) ..................................................................................................................58
Not a Mens Rea Offence
Not an Absolute Liability Offence
Strict Liability Offence
Reference re Section 94(2) of the Motor Vehicle Act (B.C.) (1985)...................................59
R v Pontes (1995)..................................................................................................................59
R v Hess (1990)......................................................................................................................59
R v Cancoil Thermal Corp. (1986).......................................................................................60
Levis v Tetreault (2006)........................................................................................................60
R v Wholesale Travel Group (1991)....................................................................................61
R v Vaillancourt (1987).........................................................................................................61
R v Raham [2010] .................................................................................................................62
EXTENSIONS OF CRIMINAL LIABILITY.........................63-73
Aiding and Abetting..........................................................................................63-67
CC s.21(1)................................................................................................................................63
R v Dunlop and Sylvester (1979) ...........................................................................................63
R v Black (1970) .....................................................................................................................64
R v Clarkson (1971) ...............................................................................................................64
R v Logan (1990)............................................................................................................64
R v Briscoe [2010] ..................................................................................................................66
Counselling............................................................................................................67-69
CC. s.22(1),(2),(3) ..................................................................................................................67
CC s.464 ..................................................................................................................................68
R v Hamilton (2005) ...............................................................................................................68
Actus reus for Counselling
Mens rea for Counselling
“Intent” VS “Motive”
Applying Intent/Motive to the case
Attempts.............................................................................................................69-72
CC s.24(1),(2) .........................................................................................................................69
CC s.463 Attempts, accessories – (a)-(d)(i)(ii).......................................................................69
CC s.465 Conspiracy – (1)-(7)................................................................................................70
CC s.660 .................................................................................................................................70
R v Ancio (1984) ....................................................................................................................70
R v Deustch (1986) ................................................................................................................70
R v Dery (2006) ......................................................................................................................71
Corporate and Association Liability..............................................................72-73
Canadian Dredge and Dock Co. v R (1985) .........................................................................72
Absolute Liability Offences
Offences of Strict Liability
Offences Requiring Mens Rea
SELECT CRIMINAL DEFENCES.....................................74-97
Mental Disorder (Defence).............................................................................74-77
CC s.16(1),(2),(3) ...................................................................................................................74
R v Cooper (1980) ..................................................................................................................75
R v Kjeldson (1981) ...............................................................................................................76
R v Oommen (1994) ...............................................................................................................77
Voluntary Acts “Negativing” the Actus Reus and Automatism...............77-83
R v Swaby (2001) ...................................................................................................................78
R v Parks ................................................................................................................................78
R v Stone (1999) ....................................................................................................................78
R v Rabey (1980.....................................................................................................................79
R v Parks (1992) ....................................................................................................................79
Sleepwalking
Recurrence as a factor to consider to constitute disease of the mind
R v Stone (1999) ....................................................................................................................80
Burdens of Proof Applied in Automatism
Disease of the Mind
Insanity VS Automatism (Why argue one over the other?).....................................................81
R v Fontaine (2004) ...............................................................................................................81
“Evidential” and “Persuasive” Burdens
Automatism – Both Burdens Must be Proved by the Accused
TEST whether to put a defence of mental disorder automatism, insane automatism,to jury
Simple Intoxication............................................................................................83-86
R v Bernard (1988) ..................................................................................................................83
Distinction between “General intent” and “Specific intent”
Applying Intoxication as a Defence to General and Specific Intent Offences
Specific intent
General intent
Leary v The Queen (1978)...........................................................................................84
Leary Rule
Justifying the Leary Rule..............................................................................................84
R v Robinson (1996) ................................................................................................................85
Extreme Intoxication........................................................................................86-87
R v Daviault (1994) ................................................................................................................86
How the Leary Rule Violates ss.7 and 11(d) of the Charter
Reverse Onus
Parliament’s response to Daviault...........................................................................................87
Defence of the Person....................................................................................87-92
s.34(1) ......................................................................................................................................88
s.34(2) ......................................................................................................................................88
s.35 ...........................................................................................................................................88
s.37 ...........................................................................................................................................88
R v Pintar (1996) .....................................................................................................................88
R v Cinous (2002) ....................................................................................................................89
Rationale Behind The Air of Reality Test
Air of Reality test imposes a burden on the accused
Persuasive burden
Evidential burden
Features of the Air of Reality Test
R v Lavallee (1990) ................................................................................................................90
Question to the Jury and Expert Evidence
Expert Evidence
Self-defence
Necessity.............................................................................................................92-94
R v Dudley and Stephens (1884) ..........................................................................................92
Perka v R (1984) ...................................................................................................................92
R v Latimer (2001) ................................................................................................................92
Perka Three-stage TEST – “Modified Objective” and “Objective” Test
Air of Reality to the Defence of Necessity
Air of Reality test
Necessity Defence
Compare Latimer and Morgentaler......................................................................................93
Duress..................................................................................................................94-97
R v Hibbert (1995) ...............................................................................................................94
Meaning of “Purpose” in s.21(1)(b)
Mens rea for aiding under s.21(1)(b) is Not Negated by Duress
The Safe Avenue of Escape Requirement
Is the Existence of a Safe Avenue of Escape to Be Determined Subjectively or Objectively?
R v Ruzic (2001) .................................................................................................................95
Do the Immediacy and Presence Requirements in s.17 Infringe the Principle of Involuntariness in the Attribution of Criminal Responsibility?
Burden of Proof
